Mammogram Fail

Introduction: 

The Value of Mammograms The United States, throughout the years, have no recordings in which the rate of cancers have declined in which they have already spread far beyond the breast before they were located. The purpose of screening is in the hope for early detection of cancer so that it is possible to treated. Cancers being in a local area then spread to various organs eventually to various parts of the human body. But why is it that screenings have not reduced the rate of cancers? (A)Detection options for breast cancer have been provided and the rates of these cancers have been stable since 1975.  The average age that women are diagnosed with cancer is at about the age of 63. (A quite possibility that this is another reason as to why cancers are not being detected sooner) The pattern that breast cancer tends to take is that it is already systemic, spreading quickly and widely from the very beginning. Because of this pattern, detecting breast cancers sooner limits the process. (A)

Investigation: 

Limitations of MammographyThe limitations in mammography include false-negative results, false-positive results, and over-diagnosis/over-treatment. Mammograms were created in the 1980s to detect breast cancers that are too small to be felt. The value of mammograms and its influence in helping women live longer is not as promising as people might think. A woman's overall health status (aka: whether or not she has other serious or life-threatening health problems. Congestive heart failure, end-stage renal disease, or chronic obstructive pulmonary/lung disease are just some examples). 

Although mammograms can detect small tumors in the breast area, breast cancer is fast-growing and so aggressive that there is a great chance that it has already spread to other areas before it can even be detected. (B) False-negative mammogram results occurs when everything seems normal when in fact the breast cancer is present. One in five breast cancers are not found in mammogram screenings. These type of results are more common in younger women whose breasts are much more dense making it difficult to detect. ( As we age, women's breasts become less dense) (B) 

False-positive mammogram results occur when the breast looks abnormal in the screening but no cancer is present. Diagnostic mammograms, ultrasounds, and MRIs or even biopsy's are performed when abnormal mammograms are detected to make sure that there is or is no cancer.  These results are also more common in younger women who have dense breasts, have had breast biopsies, taking estrogen,or have family history in breast cancer.  These results often cause a lot of anxiety in patients due to the extra tests needed to make sure that cancer is not present which costs time money and physical discomfort.(B) 

Lastly, another limitation of mammograms is that physicians can not tell the difference between life-threatening cancers which grow and spread to other parts of the human body to those that are not dangerous and will not grow. Although mammograms can detect cancers such as invasive breast cancers as well as DCIS (aka: ductal carcinoma in situ- which are cancer cells in the lining of the breast ducts), some of the tumors detected may not be life-threatening and do not grow. (B) Over diagnosis, subsequently, has women being treated unnecessarily with cancer therapy which can be physically draining and challenge an individual's mental health. About 0-10% of women fall into this range(B). We have to find ways for doctors to differentiate between cancers and cases of DCIS that become life threatening, instead of treating everything detected by mammograms the same.

Concluding Remarks: 

Benefits of Mammography The fundamental purpose of mammogram screenings is to save lives by detecting diseases before symptoms develop so that physicans are able to provide their patients treatments to reduce the affects of the disease (possibly even cure it), but above all to give their patients hope of a longer life. Diagnostic mammography ( known more commonly in the medical field as the 'problem solving mammography' which uses the similar procedure to normal mammograms) uses x-rays and the patients specific symptoms of men and women. It can also be used to determine presence or absence of breast cancer in patients with personal history of breast cancer or biopsy-proven breast disease. (C) 

The World Health Organization (WHO) has screening guidelines that applies to both breast cancer and mammography.  First the disease being screened is serious and prevalent, and the test used should be sensitive and specific, well tolerated, inexpensive and changes therapy or outcome. The reason for these five principles is so that the disease has to be prevalent enough and show symptoms of the diseases to warrant screenings and tests. (C)

Links:

(A)http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/oct/29/mammograms-not-catching-cancers-before-they-spread-say-us-experts
(B) http://www.cancer.org/treatment/understandingyourdiagnosis/examsandtestdescriptions/mammogramsandotherbreastimagingprocedures/mammograms-and-other-breast-imaging-procedures-mammogram-limitations
(C)http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22311/

*These images are not mine! They were found on various tumblr sites! If any are yours -please let me know so that I can give you credit! Thanks so much~

Spermatid Injection Gives Hope

 

INTRODUCTION: 

Spermatid was injected into the cytoplasm of the oocyte (female egg) allows for the production viable embryos developing to term in the mother. Round Spermatid Injection (aka: ROSI) and Elongated Spermatid Injection (aka: ELSI) as well as the focus of the features of zygote development associated with sperm percursor cells for fertilization. The fertilization rates of ROSI were 45% and the rates of ELSI were 44%. (C)

Individual rounds or elongated spermatids were found in spermatid enriched fractions (formed by the centrifugion of cells from azoospermic ejaculates through a discontinuous Percoll gradient column) which were then injected into the female oocytes causing 'Oocyte Activation'. This activation was boosted with the addition of ooplasm at the same time the injection occured. (C)


Males with defects in their spermatogensis are not able to reproduce. Human conception with the use of spermatids instead of spermtaozoa became a possibility when scientists observed that injecting elongated spermatid during cleavage and four cell stage of oocytes produced normal fertilization. This procedure was confirmed through two resulting childbirths due to injection of round spermatids into the female oocytes. (C)

But WHERE are these researchers finding these spermatids to inject into the female oocytes? Well, spermatids are found in the testicular tissue of sertoli cells. Using a micromanipulator to pull these spermatids off but it is common for spermatids to detach spontaneously and appear in the ejaculate of *azoospermic men. (C) *azoospermia is the absence of motile sperm in the semen*

It is critical to have a deep understanding of how fertilization occurs in the human body in order for this procedure to work.  Knowledge of the specific features of spermatids and zygote development are essential for the procedure of ROSI and ELSI to have effective outcomes.

 RESEARCH:

Fourteen healthy children were born to twelve men and their partners after a round of injection of spermatid. This injection of spermatid was once called Rosi which had been banned in the United Kingdom since the 1990s because of the large health risks to children. The injection of the immature sperm cells into eggs could help infertile men worldwide become fathers. This study and its findings have urged UK to reconsider the ban of Rosi. (A)

The 14 successful births followed the injection of 76 electrically stimulated eggs with spermatids taken from men aged 22 to 46. None of the children, born between September 2011 and March 2014, have shown any sign of physical or mental problems or genetic disorders, said the scientists, writing in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.(A)

Dr Atsushi Tanaka and his team from Institute for Assisted Reproductive Technology in Fukuoka, Japan, concluded, “Round spermatid injection was effectively used in our clinic and resulted in the birth of 14 healthy babies. Although the current success rate of round spermatid injection is not very high compared with intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (Icsi), this procedure can be the last resort for men who cannot produce spermatozoa but wish to use their own genetic material to produce offspring.(A)”

CONCLUSION:

Two decades ago British researchers tried the technique and as a result a few babies were born because of this procedure. The Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority (aka: HFEA) decided to outlaw this procedure due to the risks of these very same babies produced through this process, coming into the world with physical or mental disability. (Not to mention that it did not always work.) (A)

Such previous attempts with ROSI were failures due to the fact that there was major obstacles in identifying the cells as well as activating the recipient eggs. In order for British scientists to perform a similar study, they would have to ask for permission from HFEA, providing scientific, technologic, and ethical/moral evidence behind this research. (A)

Links:
(A) http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/02/modern-twist-fertility-technique-hope-sterile-men
(B)http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3583157/
(C)http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/4/772.full.pdf

*Please note! These images are not mine. They were found on various tumblr, pinterest, google image sites! If any are yours’ please let me know so that I can give you credit for them! Also the people in the images have no relation to the diseases, illnesses, or cancers I write about. Thanks so much & enjoy~

Wednesday Inspiration: Passion has a funny way of Trumping Logic

New Heart Disease Treatment

Introduction:

Recently discovered cells that grow fresh arteries and restore blood supply to organs through a radical new treatment for heart disease. Natural bypass therapies that coax heart cells into forming new arteries that are capable of re-routing blood around diseased and blocked blood vessels. This treatment can be given to patients as a precaution to heart disease or even after a heart attack.  The treatment given will give these patients extra arteries that will be ready to take over if their own become clogged. (A)

Coronary heart disease is when the arteries that supply the heart with oxygen rich blood becomes narrow from build up of fatty tissues due to a poor diet.  These narrowed pathways forces blood into smaller nearby vessels that are brought around the diseased artery. Unfortunately, not enough blood will be supplied to the heart that it needs. The researchers of 'Red-Horse' hope to grow arteries that can take over and supply this much needed blood supply to the heart when a heart attack strikes. (A)

Research:

The greatest obstacle that scientists faced is HOW coronary arteries actually formed. The ambiguity of which heart cells formed smooth muscle sheaths that need to form new arteries and more importantly if they even existed in adults were just some of the challenges researchers faced.
In adult mice, the Stanford team, added fluorescent tags to single cell located in the epicardium (which is located in the tissue layer that covers the heart) in order to track down cells that form arterial muscles.  The team was now able to trace this epicardial cell including its cell generations and the cells that were created as they divided. Some cells became arterial muscle cells which originated from pericytes. (A)

Molecular signals tell pericytes to grow into arterial muscle cells. If these very same signals can be somehow mimicked by a drug, then the cells in the heart could form new arteries on the hearts surface so that blood can flow. Tests are still being conducted to this day by the scientists from Standford (aka Red-Horse) on the hearts of mice in hopes of growing new arteries in these mice within the next five years. (A)

Concluding Remarks:

As of today, patients with blocked arteries,  are treated with angioplasty where the material that is causing the blockage is removed. Unfortunately, many times the blockage returns. Bypass surgery, another option for patients, is the process in which blood vessels bridge the blocked areas of the arteries. This option is often more successful than angioplasty. Scientists now believe that regenerating new arteries may work better than both angioplasty and bypass surgery. (A)

Links:
(A)http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/oct/19/artery-cell-discovery-paves-way-for-new-heart-disease-treatment

*These images do not belong to me! They were found on various tumblr sites- if any are yours please let me know so I can give you credit for them! Thanks so much~

Herpes Virus to Cure Cancer

Introduction:

The United States’ Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a first-of-its-kind drug that uses a modified version of the herpes virus to infiltrate and reduce the size of cancer tumors. (The HSV or Herpes Simplex Virus produces cold sores with individuals infected with HSV-1 and genital herpes with those that have the HSV-2 infection.

These viruses are not only contagious but incurable.) (B) Amgen Incorporations have produced a drug called 'Imlygic' (that is injectable) which will be used on cancerous tumors. Malignant melanoma (aka: skin cancer tumors) that cannot be surgically removed as well as those who suffer from metastatic malignant melanomas (cancer has started to spread to other parts of the body or metastasizing) are to be injected with Imlygic. (B)

Research:

New medicines known in the medical or research field as immuno-therapies or immune-oncology have the ability to use the immune system of the human body to aid in attacking cancer cells. Approved by the FDA, these drugs have brought one of the very first significant advances in patient survival for specific cancer types such as lung cancer and melanoma. (A) Injected directly into tumor tissues, the herpes virus slips through and kills cancer cells.


Once inside, the HSV-1 uses its own receptors to target and bind to the surface of the host cell membrane. Next, an 'entry pore' is developed where the virus can now inject its genetic material into the cell filtrating to the cell's nucleus. Subsequently, the host cell is now -hijacked by the virus- being forced to replicate its genetic viral code, host cell then bursts (now destroyed) and the new viral particles are released. This is the process that will be used to destroy cancerous tumor cells with a modified version of HSV-1. Presence of HSV-1 will trigger the immune system which will also end up aiding in the attack of the tumor. (B)

So how does this process affect melanoma cells specifically? Well, what the drug T-VEC (aka: talimogene laherparepvec) does is that is divides repeatedly into copies until the cancer cell membranes burst. As this is happening, the gene snippet produces a protein that stimulates the immune system to respond and ultimately kill melanoma cells of tumors.(A)

Results: 

Although, this drug with the modified HSV-1 (the virus which causes cold sores) have shown groundbreaking results, the FDA stresses that it does not extend life. Results of the study showed that 16% that were injected with the drug did not show a dramatic increase in life expectancy. The effect only lasted 6 months. These patients' tumors shrunk compared to the 2% of patients who took more conventional cancer drugs. Regulators stressed that Imlygic had no effect on melanoma that had spread to the brain, lungs or other internal organs.(A)

Trading one disease for another- Is it really worth it?

Links:
(A) http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/28/us-approval-for-drug-that-turns-herpes-virus-against-cancer
(B)http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/herpes-virus-recruited-fight-against-skin-cancer

*These images do not belong to me! They were found on various tumblr sites! If any are yours please let me know so that I can give you credit for them~ Thanks so much~!

Asthma Drug: Rejuvenating Aging Brains

INTRODUCTION:

An anti-asthmetic drug was used in various trials with rats to determine its benefits on the aging brain. The inhibition of the leukotriene receptor signaling might be the key to restoring cognitive functions in older patients and those who have dementia.(A)

Scientists who have studied rats aim to begin similar trials on patients who have dementia from their discovery of an asthma drug which reduced brain inflammation as well as increasing neuron growth in their rats. According to these research findings, the drug that prevents asthma attacks could be the key to rejuvenating the aging process of the human brain. (B)

This drug is called 'montelukast' which improves memory and learning in older rodents whose performance matched those of younger animals in the cognitive tests performed.  In other words, it is a an anti-asthmatic drug that antagonizes leukotriene receptors which reduces neuronal inflammation, increases neurogenesis in the hippocamous, while improving memory and learning in older animals. This study demonstrated that through the inhibition of GPR17 receptor is mediated by using knockout gene approaches. (A)

The way in which montelukast works is through a combination of a decrease in brain inflammation and the growth of new neurons in the hippocampus. Although, performance of older rats improved the younger rats were not affected by the drug (in other words their performance did not improve but stayed the same). Now, the goal is to start clinical trails on patients with dementia. With age, the human brain functions decrease and can be clearly seen through symptoms of memory loss, decline in cognitive skills, decreased growth of formation of new brain cells, and gradual increase in inflammation of the brain. (B)

The reason as to why these scientists decided to research the affects of montelukast on the brain is because with patients who have asthma this inexpensive drug blocks inflammation. If this drug- that linked biological pathways to asthma- could decrease the various inflammatory conditions in the body, then there is a possibility that montelukast could perform the same functions and have the same affects on the human brain. (B)

RESEARCH:

Rats were given daily doses of montelukast. There were two age groups: four month old rats (equivalent to children/young adults in humans) to 20 month old rats( equivalent in age to 65-70 year old humans). Although the older rats did not have dementia, their brain functions showed a very similar decline as to those of older individual humans. Both groups of rats were trained to find within a pool a submerged platform. Once 5 days passed, the older rats were still uncertain about the location of the platform. Those that were given the drug, found the submerged platform almost as well as the younger rodents. (B)  

Two days were used as a break from training. Then, the next day the rats were lowered into the pool once more to look for the platform. The older animals had a difficult time remembering where the platform was. Those who were on the drug had better memory and found it almost as quickly as the younger animals. More tests were conducted to see how the rodents demeanor changed if familiar objects in their cages were moved from one place to another. The younger ones tended to spend more time observing the moved objects as did the older rats who were given the drug. The scientists linked this behavior to these rodents having better memory of the objects original positions. (B)

CONCLUSION: 

Results showed that the brains of the older rats that were on the drug had more new neurons and less inflammation than those who received the placebo.  The results of this study is very hopeful for those suffering from neurodegenerative diseases but more research has to be conducted in order for scientists to be sure of the benefits this drug will have on patients. (B)

 “The approach of repurposing existing drugs is a promising one as it could mean new treatments for dementia become available in half of the time of a standard drug - bringing hope to hundreds of thousands. Through our drug discovery program, Alzheimer’s Society is currently co-funding a clinical trial into the arthritis drug Etanercept, which could work in a similar way by reducing inflammation in the brain.(B)

Since life expectancy has increased, more and more age related cognitive illnesses have become more common. This represents a great challenge to physicians, researchers, and scientists alike to find cures for these chronic diseases and ways in which they can better treat individuals with such age related cognitive difficulties.

Links:
(A)http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151027/ncomms9466/full/ncomms9466.html
(B) http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/27/asthma-drug-could-rejuvenate-ageing-brains-study-suggests

 *Please note! These images are not mine. They were found on various tumblr, pinterest, google image sites! If any are yours’ please let me know so that I can give you credit for them! Also the people in the images have no relation to the diseases, illnesses, or cancers I write about. Thanks so much & enjoy~ Screenshots by: google images

Bacteria aids in Memory Storage and Anxiety Reduction

Introduction:

Recent studies show that changes in gut bacteria make mice less anxious and lowering levels of cortisol, the stress hormone. In humans, the link between gut bacteria and mental health is very evident. The wide range of the many microbes living in the gut affect people's physical health as well as their mental health. New research performed in England discovered that probiotics/prebiotics-strains of good bacteria- in the gut change the way in which people process emotional information, subsequently providing strong evidence that the changes in gut bacteria have anti-anxiety affects. Scientists are studying whether it would be possible to treat anxiety and/or depression with these strains of good bacteria or even improve the response to psychiatric drugs that these individuals take. Researcher, Philip Burnet, from Oxford University postulates these possibilities. There are still many studies that need to be conducted before these hypothesis can be proven as safe as well for the mental health of humans. (B)

This is not the first time that a study was conducted to further investigate the interaction between the nervous system and the gut. Nervous system signaling molecules also live in the intestines of the gut (aka: neurotransmitters) that are also found in the brain. Serotonin also known as the happy hormone is found in both locations. Researchers from Ireland in University College Cork gave a group of healthy men doses of 'Bifido-bacterium longum 1714' as the researchers noted responses to somewhat stressful situations. They found that certain probiotic bacteria might not only be helpful with anxiety but also improve memory. (A)

Research:

In a recent study from England, a larger group than those in Ireland were tested, 45 healthy individuals ranging from ages 18 to 45.  These individuals either took a prebiotic or a placebo everyday for the following 3 weeks. At the end of the 3rd week, they had to complete several computer tests to see how well they processed emotional information. (B)

Those who took the prebiotic paid less attention to negative words and more to positive ones. Those who took the placebo were more likely to pay attention to the negative information than than individuals who had been taking the prebiotic for 3 weeks. The results showed that people who take medications for anxiety or depression have a similar effect to those who took the prebiotic who reported to have less anxiety about negative stimuli. (B)

Another study conducted in Chicago by the Society for Neuroscience had 22 healthy males of ages ranging from 18 to 40 were given a placebo for 4 weeks and then a probiotic for the same amount of time. (Or vice versa) The subjects were to take numerous tests and questionnaires that would report anxiety measured by 'Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory' to the researchers. (A)

One test had the participants memorizing patterns within boxes in which those that took the probiotic showed improved performance. To test stress responses, the participants were asked to put their hands in ice cold water for 3 minutes. All showed an increase in anxiety, but those taking the probiotic had less severe of an increase in anxiety compared to those who had been taking the placebo. These tests also showed that cortisol- the stress hormone- was lower during the stressful situations. The participants were also asked to use an online questionnaire to report their daily stress levels. Towards the end of the study, decreased levels of stress levels were found in those who took probiotics. (A)

 The loopholes of this study, such as testing only men, unable to provide evidence that the bacterium made it to the GI tract (which could be shown through stool samples), nor were potential mechanisms that show patterns were investigated. The researchers did not use women in this study because their menstrual cycles could affect the cortisol levels making the study more difficult to attain clear results.  They also believe that the release of molecules from the bacteria interact with nerve fibers. (A)

Results:

Subsequently,  the study found that those who took the prebiotics had lower levels of cortisol in thier salvia when they woke up in the morning. High cortisol levels have been linked with stress, anxiety and depression. However, there were no changes in the levels of stress and anxiety which could have been due to the fact that the volunteers did not take the prebiotic long enough to have an effect. Their already low levels of stress and anxiety could have also been the reason. (B)

However, a 2011 study from France found that people who took probiotics for 30 days did have reduced levels of psychological distress. Because this is just one study, its findings need to be confirmed in future research. In a 2013 study, UCLA researchers gave women milk with or without probiotics, and then scanned their brains while they viewed photos of people with emotional facial expressions. Those who took the probiotics had less activity in their brains in areas involved in processing emotions, compared with those who did not take the probiotic. (B)

 Links:
(A) http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/probiotic-bacteria-may-help-reduce-anxiety-and-boost-memory-performance
(B) http://www.livescience.com/49248-gut-bacteria-mental-health.html

*These images do not belong to me- they were found on various tumblr sites! Please let me know if any are yours and I will give you credit for them! Thanks so much~